2.1. Water management zoning

2.3. Radiological Contamination

The problem of radiological contamination of soil and contamination of bottom sediments (the latter resulting from erosion) is the problem of the utmost urgency which has potential long-term effects and affects the environmental state of water bodies of the Russian Dnipro basin. The Chernobyl accident resulted in significant radiological contamination of populated centers and agricultural land of 14 subjects of the Russian Federation.

In the 90-ties the highest Cs-137 concentrations were registered in the Briansk, Kaluga and Oriol regions while Kursk and Belgorod regions had lower Cs-137 levels.

At the beginning of 1999 these territories were reported to be contaminated by long-lived elements, namely, cesium-137, strontium-90 and plutonium-239 and 240.

In terms of the size of the area affected the Briansk region remains to be the most contaminated. The overall radiological situation in the Briansk, Kaluga and Oriol regions is still unfavorable.

According to the data provided by the Ministry of Agriculture of Russia, some 2000 ha of agricultural land are contaminated by cesium-137 in excess of 1 ku/km², including some 300 ha contaminated by cesium-137 in excess of 5 ku/km².

Among other things, to improve the environmental status of Dnipro basin water bodies large-scale water protection activities should be carried out. Such activities should be planned while keeping in mind the analysis of environmental conditions in the drainage area and the structure and scope of economic activities in the region. The available results of stationary surveys are insufficient for such an analysis to be conducted. It is not clear what is the nature of the natural component of water quality and what economic activities form the anthropogenous component of river water quality. The available data on the overall contamination level and a list of surface water quality parameters (limits) are contradictory. The impact of economic activities on river biodiversity is still not understood.

In the future it is expected that data on the impact of each above-said factor on water quality will be used for assessing the impact of economic activities on water quality of Dnipro Basin surface water bodies.

2.2.1. Transboundary zone "Russia – Belarus"

The examined zone partially encompasses the western and central parts of the East-European (Russian) plain, is located at 52-56° north and is attributed to the forest agro-climatic zone. The climate of the region is moderately continental with the yearly precipitation of 530 to 560 mm. The Smolensk and Briansk regions are attributed to large highly industrialized regions of Central Russia. Geographically, these regions favorably compare with others since they are located at a an intersection of important traffic routes from Moscow to Belarus, the Baltic States and central and west European countries. The regions are rich in mineral deposits such as brown coal, peat, phosphorites, deposits of building materials as well as sulphate-calcium and magnesium mineral water resources. The major industries include electric power generation, machine building, metal working, chemistry, consumer goods, food processing and production of building materials. Timber and woodworking industries are also developed. The largest power generation facilities include Smolensk nuclear power plant, Safonov mines administration bureau and Smolensktorf. Agricultural production is for the most part represented by meat and dairy production as well as crop production (the main industrial crops being flax and potatoes). The population density in the regions varies from 30 to 42 persons per 1 sq. km.

The Dnipro Basin accommodates the largest industrialized cities of the Smolensk region whose industries and public utilities negatively affect the surface water quality. First of all these are the city of Smolensk with a population of 300 thou ., and the cities of Viazma, Safonovo, Yartsevo situated on the Dnipro River, Roslavl situated on the Oster River, and Novozybkov situated on the Iput River in the Briansk region with a population of 50 to 60 thou.

According to the State Water Consumption Register (format 2-TP) over the past few years the annual volume of extracted surface water has stood at 72 mn m³ including 5 mn m³ extracted by Smolensk city.

The annual volume of wastewater discharged into natural surface water bodies located in the examined zone has reached 150 mn m³ of which 120 mn m³ are discharged into the Dnipro Basin with Smolensk accounting for 30% of this volume. Of the total volume of discharged wastewater over 80% need treatment.

Significant pollution loads enter water bodies with run-offs from cultivated agricultural land (arable land accounts for 32% of the examined zone) as well as from livestock production farms (the total number of cattle, pigs and poultry raised in the zone are 270 thou, 120 thou and 3 mn, respectively).

2.2.2. Transboundary zone "Russia- Ukraine"

Geographically, this zone is located in the center of the East-European (Russian) plain and encompasses the forest, forest-steppe and steppe climatic zones.

The climate of the zone is moderately continental with average temperatures in the range of -9 - 10,3°С to -7 - 9,5°С in January (from the north to the south), and from +17 – 18°С to + 18,6 – 19,8°С in July. The average precipitation volume varies from 580 to 640 mm in the sufficiently humid northern part and from 560 to 584 mm in the moderately humid southern part.

As one moves to the south and south-west the share of the drainage basin covered by forests decreases (from 44-50% in the Kaluga and Briansk regions to 11% in the Kursk and Belgorod regions) and accordingly the share of cultivated land increases (from 30-33% in the north to 63-65% in the south).

The area is rich in mineral resources, raw materials and nonmetalliferous building materials such as brown coal, phosphorites, limestone, iron ore of the Kursk anomaly, etc.

The population density shows some variability over regions ranging from 14 people per sq. km. in the Oriol region to 476 people per sq. km. in the Kursk region. The proportion of urban population is fairly high in the Kaluga region (71%), Briansk region (68%) and Kursk region (62%). At the same time, in predominantly rural Oriol and Belgorod regions the share of the urban population is as low as 30% and 38%, respectively.

Agriculture plays an important role in the drainage basin. The major agricultural activities are crop production and meat and dairy production. The significant proportion of the sown area is under industrial crops.

Among the crops grown in the three climatic zones are potatoes, grain, cereals (buckwheat), leguminous plants (peas), sugar beet and vegetables. In 2001 the total numbers of cattle, pigs, sheep and poultry were around 1 mn, over 650 thou, over 100 thou, and over 14 mn, respectively.

The most highly industrialized regions in the drainage area are the Briansk and Kursk regions.

In the Briansk region machine-building and metal working industries account for the bulk of industrial production (31%). Other major industries include food industry (29%), building materials industry (10%) and electric power generation (8%).

The largest industrialized cities and townships of the Briansk region are located on the Desna River. These include Briansk with a population of 485 thou, Diatkovo, Zhukovka and Trubchevsk with a population of 20 to 40 thou each. These cities and towns influence the Desna River environment and predetermine the chemistry of transboundary pollution.

Water quality of the Sudost River is influenced by the towns of Pochep, Starodub and Pogar with populations ranging from 17 thou to 20 thou while water quality of the Snov River is formed by the town of Klimovo.

The annual volume of water extracted from surface water bodies located in the Desna River basin is 45 mn m³, of which 35 mn m³ are extracted by Briansk alone.

The annual volume of wastewater discharged into surface water bodies is around 90 mn m³, including over 60 mn m3 (or 70%) generated by Briansk water users.

Practically all wastewater discharged into the rivers (95%) is “contaminated” and needs to be treated.

The Kursk region is situated on the territory of the Kursk magnetic anomaly which is one of the largest iron-ore mining basins of the world. Iron ore is extracted by the Mikhailovskiy GOK situated on the Svapa River (Seim River tributary). The region has been found to possess deposits of chalk, phosphorites, foundry sand and ceramic loam. These have been explored and assessed.

Major industries include ore mining, machine building, metal working, glass industry, chemistry, consumer goods and food processing. Electric power industry is represented by the Kursk nuclear power plant.

The region’s largest cities that have an impact on surface water quality and the transboundary transfer of pollutants are located in the Seim River drainage area. Those located on the Seim River itself include Kursk with a population of 443 thou, Kurchatov (44 thou), Lgov and Rylsk (20 thou each).

Water quality of the Psiol River is influenced by the towns of Oboyan (15 thou) and Sudzha (around 10 thou).

The annual volume of water extracted from surface water bodies of the Seim River basin by Kursk region’s water users is 170 mn m³, of which 80 mn m³ (or 45%) are extracted by Kursk alone.

The annual volume of wastewater discharged into surface water bodies of the Seim River basin by the Kursk region is over 145 mn m³, of which 45% are “contaminated” or “inadequately treated” discharges that need treatment. Kursk city water users account for more than 70% of the region’s entire wastewater discharge volume.

Major populated centers of the Belgorod region, which are located on the Vorskla River, are the housing estates of Stroitel, Tomarovka, Yakovlevo and Borisovka as well as the town of Graivoron with populations ranging from 3 to 15 thou.

The Vorsklitsa River drainage basin is 100% rural with no urban populated centers. Surface water quality of the Vorsklitsa and Vorskla rivers is influenced by agricultural activities and especially by crop production (arable land consiitutes over 60% of the two rivers’ drainage area).

The consolidated indicators of economic activities and surface water consumption in the drainage areas of the Dnipro Basin transboundary rivers in the year 2000 are presented in Table 2.2.

3.1. Field Study Materials

The field study resulted in an assessment of water quality and quality fish and mollusk tissue associated with it. The composition of bottom sediments was also determined.

The field work was characterized by the following:

1. The sampling procedure, list of examined parameters, methodological approaches to determining such parameters and sampling schedule were consistent with those applied during similar studies conducted in Belarus and Ukraine;

2. Water flow rates were determined at monitored sampling sites concurrently with physical, chemical, hydrochemical, radiological, hydrobiological and bacteriological water quality parameters;

3. Reliance on the integrated approach in assessing the environmental state of surface water and bottom sediments (namely, their hydrochemical, radiological and bacteriological parameters);

4. Field works were geared to the subsequent assessment of the transboundary transfer of pollutants.

Table 3.1. List of Measured Parameters (21.05.2001 – 10.06.2001)

During the field study the weather was rather variable; it was cloudy and rained heavily. So, during the field study period the river collected its flow both from groundwater and rainwater. Even though the flow was calm some river stretches were characterized by higher-than-usual water turbidity and color index (the upper reaches of the Dnipro River and the Oster River on the border with Ukraine) as well as low water clarity (13 – 15 cm at sampling sites along the Dnipro and Vorsklitsa rivers). This was caused by the runoff of suspended solids with flood water from the drainage as well as by an increase in water flow velocity.

Water velocity and cross-sections were measured at 14 sampling locations. Water flow rates, calculated based on these measurements, are presented in Table 3.1.

The results of chemical and radiological water analyses are summarized in Appendix 3. The results of chemical and radiological analyses of fish and mollusk tissue and of bottom sediments are listed in Appendix 4.

Probability distribution functions (PDF) were formed for water quality parameters for which over 20 measurements were made. All PDFs are presented in Appendix 5.

The results of the hydrochemical survey of water quality of the Dnipro River and its tributaries showed that during the three-week field study period surface water quality of the Dnipro Basin (on the Russian territory) with respect to all parameters met the standards set for surface water sources of class 1 – 2 used for industrial and human consumption purposes. At all the examined sampling locations no restrictions on water consumption for recreational purposes were registered as far as hydrochemical parameters were concerned. However, when we analyzed the available data on bacteriological parameters we registered cases where recreational MACs (maximum acceptable concentrations) were exceeded for LIB (lactose positive intestinal bacillus) (1.2 times higher than MAC): the Snov and Sudost rivers near the Ukrainian border). As far as fish industry’s water needs are concerned water quality of the examined water bodies does not meet existing standards with respect to several parameters.

During the summer field works we established 8 tentative top-priority surface water quality parameters (limits) for which MACs established for water bodies used for fishing and fish-breeding purposes and those established for surface water sources used for industrial purposes and human consumption needs (class 1) were found to be exceeded. The list of surface water quality parameters (limits) and the ratio of actual (measured) concentrations of pollutants to the corresponding MACs are presented in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2. Cases where MACs of pollutants in surface water bodies of the Russian Dnipro Basin were exceeded

Table 3.3. contains MACs values for all water quality parameters listed in Table 3.2.

Table 3.3. MACs

According to the preliminary estimates, the highest levels of pollutants were found at transboundary sampling locations along the Snov, Vorskla and Vorsklitsa rivers. The least polluted are the Oster, Sozh and Iput rivers. The pollutants which have been found to exceed MACs the most are nitrite nitrogen, copper and TPC. Concentrations of sulphates, chlorides, ammonium and nitrite nitrogen and phenols were within the prescribed MACs. The available data on levels of pesticides such as DDT, a, b, g HCCH and phosphorus-containing compounds in the Seim and Psiol rivers on the border with Ukraine demonstrate that their levels do not exceed the existing limits.

Below is shown a tentative assessment of the transboundary transfer of top-priority pollutants and its natural (background) and anthropogenic components. Under examination were organic substances (for BOD₅), nitrite nitrogen and phosphates, since the respective data of hydrochemical analyses were available for almost all sampling locations.

Transboundary Transfer of Organic Substances (for BOD₅) by Watercourses of the Russian Dnipro Basin

Transboundary Transfer of Phosphates by Watercourses of the Russian Dnipro Basin

Transboundary Transfer of Nitrate Nitrogen by Watercourses of the Russian Dnipro Basin

Note to the Fig.: The natural level of nitrites is taken as zero.

The results of the radiological survey of the Seim and Psiol rivers show that during the sampling time the radiation levels in these watercourses were within the prescribed limitsThe intencity of irradiation dose (IID) did not exceed the natural gamma-background level. Specific radioactivity of radionuclides was within the prescribed limits. The results of radiological assays of the Snov, Desna, Iput and Sudost rivers in the vicinity of the village of Dobrodeyevka showed that the overall beta-radioactivity level was within the prescribed range. Higher total beta-radioactivity levels were registered at the following sites: in the Snov River near the village of Zasnoviye, in the Desna River near the village of Kamen and in the Sudost River near the village of Zhyriatino. This may serve as proof of possible radiological contamination of these rivers. The final conclusion about the magnitude of radiological contamination of the Dnipro River and its tributaries (water, bottom sediments and hydrobionts) can only be made based on additional radiological analyses of the above-said watercourses.

3.1. Field Study Materials

The field study resulted in an assessment of water quality and quality fish and mollusk tissue associated with it. The composition of bottom sediments was also determined.

The field work was characterized by the following:

1. The sampling procedure, list of examined parameters, methodological approaches to determining such parameters and sampling schedule were consistent with those applied during similar studies conducted in Belarus and Ukraine;

2. Water flow rates were determined at monitored sampling sites concurrently with physical, chemical, hydrochemical, radiological, hydrobiological and bacteriological water quality parameters;

3. Reliance on the integrated approach in assessing the environmental state of surface water and bottom sediments (namely, their hydrochemical, radiological and bacteriological parameters);

4. Field works were geared to the subsequent assessment of the transboundary transfer of pollutants.

Table 3.1. List of Measured Parameters (21.05.2001 – 10.06.2001)

During the field study the weather was rather variable; it was cloudy and rained heavily. So, during the field study period the river collected its flow both from groundwater and rainwater. Even though the flow was calm some river stretches were characterized by higher-than-usual water turbidity and color index (the upper reaches of the Dnipro River and the Oster River on the border with Ukraine) as well as low water clarity (13 – 15 cm at sampling sites along the Dnipro and Vorsklitsa rivers). This was caused by the runoff of suspended solids with flood water from the drainage as well as by an increase in water flow velocity.

Water velocity and cross-sections were measured at 14 sampling locations. Water flow rates, calculated based on these measurements, are presented in Table 3.1.

The results of chemical and radiological water analyses are summarized in Appendix 3. The results of chemical and radiological analyses of fish and mollusk tissue and of bottom sediments are listed in Appendix 4.

Probability distribution functions (PDF) were formed for water quality parameters for which over 20 measurements were made. All PDFs are presented in Appendix 5.

The results of the hydrochemical survey of water quality of the Dnipro River and its tributaries showed that during the three-week field study period surface water quality of the Dnipro Basin (on the Russian territory) with respect to all parameters met the standards set for surface water sources of class 1 – 2 used for industrial and human consumption purposes. At all the examined sampling locations no restrictions on water consumption for recreational purposes were registered as far as hydrochemical parameters were concerned. However, when we analyzed the available data on bacteriological parameters we registered cases where recreational MACs (maximum acceptable concentrations) were exceeded for LIB (lactose positive intestinal bacillus) (1.2 times higher than MAC): the Snov and Sudost rivers near the Ukrainian border). As far as fish industry’s water needs are concerned water quality of the examined water bodies does not meet existing standards with respect to several parameters.

During the summer field works we established 8 tentative top-priority surface water quality parameters (limits) for which MACs established for water bodies used for fishing and fish-breeding purposes and those established for surface water sources used for industrial purposes and human consumption needs (class 1) were found to be exceeded. The list of surface water quality parameters (limits) and the ratio of actual (measured) concentrations of pollutants to the corresponding MACs are presented in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2. Cases where MACs of pollutants in surface water bodies of the Russian Dnipro Basin were exceeded

Table 3.3. contains MACs values for all water quality parameters listed in Table 3.2.

Table 3.3. MACs

According to the preliminary estimates, the highest levels of pollutants were found at transboundary sampling locations along the Snov, Vorskla and Vorsklitsa rivers. The least polluted are the Oster, Sozh and Iput rivers. The pollutants which have been found to exceed MACs the most are nitrite nitrogen, copper and TPC. Concentrations of sulphates, chlorides, ammonium and nitrite nitrogen and phenols were within the prescribed MACs. The available data on levels of pesticides such as DDT, a, b, g HCCH and phosphorus-containing compounds in the Seim and Psiol rivers on the border with Ukraine demonstrate that their levels do not exceed the existing limits.

Below is shown a tentative assessment of the transboundary transfer of top-priority pollutants and its natural (background) and anthropogenic components. Under examination were organic substances (for BOD₅), nitrite nitrogen and phosphates, since the respective data of hydrochemical analyses were available for almost all sampling locations.

Transboundary Transfer of Organic Substances (for BOD₅) by Watercourses of the Russian Dnipro Basin

Transboundary Transfer of Phosphates by Watercourses of the Russian Dnipro Basin

Transboundary Transfer of Nitrate Nitrogen by Watercourses of the Russian Dnipro Basin

Note to the Fig.: The natural level of nitrites is taken as zero.

The results of the radiological survey of the Seim and Psiol rivers show that during the sampling time the radiation levels in these watercourses were within the prescribed limitsThe intencity of irradiation dose (IID) did not exceed the natural gamma-background level. Specific radioactivity of radionuclides was within the prescribed limits. The results of radiological assays of the Snov, Desna, Iput and Sudost rivers in the vicinity of the village of Dobrodeyevka showed that the overall beta-radioactivity level was within the prescribed range. Higher total beta-radioactivity levels were registered at the following sites: in the Snov River near the village of Zasnoviye, in the Desna River near the village of Kamen and in the Sudost River near the village of Zhyriatino. This may serve as proof of possible radiological contamination of these rivers. The final conclusion about the magnitude of radiological contamination of the Dnipro River and its tributaries (water, bottom sediments and hydrobionts) can only be made based on additional radiological analyses of the above-said watercourses.

4.1. Subjects and methods of investigation
4.2. Assessment of river zoobenthos
4.3. Assessment of river phytoplankton

4.4. General conclusions about the state of the rivers

During the field study conducted in May-June, 2002 zoobenthos and phytoplankton species diversity and population numbers were examined at 15 stretches of the Dnipro tributaries flowing across the Russian Federation. The following indices and parameters were determined: the Vudivis biotic index, oligotrophic index, saprobiological index, species diversity indices for phytoplankton and zoobenthos and biomass of planktonic algae. The field study also produced an assessment of river water contamination by analyzing each of these parameters.

Table 4.39 summarizes the results obtained, which characterize the Dnipro River reach downstream of Smolensk as the most contaminated one (average water quality class WQC_aver = 4 – “contaminated”). As “moderately contaminated” is characterized the Dnipro River upstream of Smolensk and the examined reaches of the Snov, Vorsklitsa, Vorskla and Iput rivers (WQC_aver = 3). Of 42 water quality measurements made during the field study (excluding species diversity indices) 31% were assigned to the 3d water quality class, 29% were attributed to the 1^st water quality class (“very pure”), 14% were categorized as belonging to the 4^th class (“contaminated”) and only 2% were classified as “dirty” (5^th water quality class) (See Fig. 4.9).

Table 4.39. Assessment of River Phytoplankton and Zoobenthos (May-June, 2001)

Note: WQC – water quality class, BI – Vudivis biotic index, OI – oligotrophic index, S_php – saprobiological index for phytoplankton, WQC_aver – average water quality class, H_zb – zoobenthos diversity index, Н_ph – phytoplankton diversity index, В_ph – phytoplankton biomass;

The Table is colored in accordance with water quality classes.

Fig. 4.9. Distribution of Measurements by Water Quality Class

It is evident from Table 4.39. that different parameters characterize the state of the rivers differently and this is only natural since different organisms and biocenoses react to their environmental conditions in a different way. At the same time, we have revealed some consistency of assessments made using certain methods. Thus, there is a plausible correlation between some parameters such as oligotrophic index and zoobenthos species diversity index, phytoplankton species diversity index and saprobiological index for phytoplankton, and oligotrophic index and saprobiological index for phytoplankton.

Given low biomass values for algae (up to 1.66 mg/L) we cannot talk about eutrophication developing in our rivers. The species diversity of the examined biocenoses is quite wide. Low species diversity indices which might give us concern were only reported in several cases (for example, in the Dnipro River near the village of Krasnoye Н_ph = 0,38).

At the same time, when analyzing the results one should take into account that living organisms (biocenoses) react to a wide variety of physical, chemical and biotic conditions in water bodies and that observed changes in biocenoses may have been caused not only by anthropogenic pressures (contamination) but also by natural changes in hydrological and hydrochemical parameters of rivers throughout the year. The river ecosystem is a very complicated and little-studied subject. Methods of hydrobiological analysis need to be improved.

It is difficult to make any final conclusions based on the results of only one field study. Thus, the research into the environmental state of the rivers in question should be continued.